Issues of Performance Appraisals Essay Example for Free

Issues of Performance Appraisals Essay Performance appraisal refers to the process, where in, an organization measures the performance of its employees against the performance or productivity standards set by it. For instance, an organization might review employees on the basis of the number of projects completed, goals achieved or sales targets met. Therefore, performance standards of one organization might be different from those of another. This further pinpoints the importance of performance appraisals in truly reflecting and impartially evaluating the performance of employees. A good performance appraisal will motivate employees and point out problematic areas. Whereas, a bad performance appraisal will be a waste of resources for any organization. Issues and Solutions Many organizations have trouble identifying the key areas that a performance appraisal has to address. They do not know, what they are trying to accomplish through a performance appraisal or how it will help them in employee evaluation. This can be established using the example of 360-degree feedback. â€Å"Typical mistakes organizations make are rushing into 360-degree appraisals without a clear idea of what they want them to achieve. † (McCurry P. (1999). New angle on 360-degree feedback. Director, 53, p. 36) Furthermore, organizations tend to use one particular tool in isolation, which does not yield reliable results. This should not be put into practice because one tool may not satisfy all the requirements of appraising. Moreover, appraisals need to take into account a comprehensive picture of performance. Using one particular tool can create a pigeon-hole view of what otherwise needed to be a holistic view of performance appraising. Ideally, an organization should know exactly what each tool can deliver, and use a combination of tools to assess different competencies. Organizations must assess pros and cons of different tools and handpick tools that suit their needs. Some tools that can be used are graphic rating scale, Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales, alternation ranking, forced distribution method, critical incident method, management by objectives and 360-degree feedback. (cited in Dessler, 2006). Some organizations might use certain tools of conducting performance appraisals just because they are being followed in the industry. This again produces a serious loop hole in the entire process of conducting performance appraisals. Every organization has its own structure, and culture that defines it. Although industry best practices might exist even for performance appraisals, however, the same tool is not necessarily applicable to all organizations. For instance, Andrew Forrest implies; if an organization’s culture is characterized by bureaucratic hierarchies, and does not foster communication, then conducting a 360-degree feedback will be pointless in such an organization. (cited in McCurry P. (1999). New angle on 360-degree feedback. Director, 53, p. 36). Some tools of performance appraising may become obsolete with relevance to an employee or employees because the on job environment of the employee changes. The problem remains that same job dynamics do not hold true for an employee, and so the employee can not be evaluated on former standards. In such a scenario performance appraisers need to consider the exact dynamics of the job of the employee and then undertake evaluation. This solution serves the interest of the both the organization and the employee. As mentioned by Candy Albertsson, . â€Å"An individual may have a different boss or team one year or be doing different work, which can make findings hard to compare†. (cited in McCurry P. (1999). New angle on 360-degree feedback. Director, 53, p. 36). One of the most important issues pertaining to performance appraisals is the degree of its objectivity. Employees certainly do not want to be unfairly evaluated because that effects the rewards or compensations tied to their performance. To ensure objectivity and fairness, Gail Dutton recommends software based performance appraisals. â€Å"software-based performance-appraisals tend to focus on results and actions rather than personality traits, employees are more likely to view them as fair†. (Dutton G. (2001). Making reviews more efficient and fair. Workforce,80, p. 76). Other methods of ensuring impartial appraisals are using multiple evaluators for the appraisal process as this increases the probability of attaining more accurate information. This is because if more than one appraiser is used the chances of errors stemming from biasness, halo effect or central tendency can be reduced. Halo effect, biasness, and central tendencies are inherent problems of the appraising process that are related to the appraiser. Halo effect occurs when â€Å"the influence of a rater’s general impression on ratings of specific ratee qualities† (cited in G. Dessler, 2006). Biasness comes from the impartiality of the appraiser where the appraiser might hold something against some employee. For example, a supervisor may have a personal dislike of an employee that may affect the appraisal process. Whereas, central tendency is defined as â€Å" a tendency to rate all employees the same way, such as rating them all average†. (Dessler, 2006, p. 328). Therefore, using more than one appraiser can truly raise the accuracy of an appraisal. In addition, appraisers should be asked to appraise only those areas in which they have expertise because they will be able to precisely evaluate the areas they specialize in. Another method to increase accuracy and objectivity of appraisal is to train evaluators. Provided that evaluators are better trained they will have a clear understanding or standards and will make better decisions. (Robbins S. P. , Judge T. A. ,2007, 625). Another issue that stems from the use of software based performance appraisals is that they can contain a set of generic questions that are not suited for the jobs that are being evaluated. (Dutton G. (2001). Making reviews more efficient and fair. Workforce,80, p. 76). To overcome this issue organizations need to tailor their software to their performance evaluation needs. In order to process a fair evaluation, the questions need to be customized to the jobs that are being evaluated. Not only should it be customized to the jobs, but also to the performance standards the job entails. Doing so organizations can address this particular issue effectively. Some organizations might favor software or computer based performance appraisals because it increases efficiency of operation. It should be noted that incorporating software based performance appraisals just for speeding up the appraising process will do no good to the organization. It might help the organization effectively utilize resources, for example, time savings, and less use of paper. Nonetheless, appraisal just for the sake of appraisal should not be the prime concern of any organization. Rather even the software based appraising process should be used to support the true meaning of carrying out performance appraisals. To make the appraising process effective organizations should incorporate supportive techniques into their performance evaluations. They should use interviews as well as other tools because in my opinion no tool can undermine the importance of face to face communications. Although the software based performance appraising methods are useful, however, a combined approach of using different tools can give more accurate results. The human touch should not be totally eliminated from the appraising process. References Dessler G. (2006). Human Resource Management. Florida: Prentice Hall Dutton G. (2001). Making reviews more efficient and fair. Workforce,80, p. 76-81. McCurry P. (1999). New angle on 360-degree feedback. Director, 53, p. 36. Robbins S. P. , Judge T. A. (2007). Organizational Behavior. New Jersey: Prentice Hall

Professional Ethics in the Construction Industry

Professional Ethics in the Construction Industry Introduction The business news headlines of ethical meltdowns of global companies such as Enron, WorldCom, and Tyco, which now have become synonymous with greed, serve as a key reminder to the companies and individuals in business to practice ethical behaviour (Doran, 2004). One of the most frequently reported unethical practices in business is bribery, described as: â€Å"the offering of some good, service or money to an appropriate person for the purpose of securing a privileged and favourable consideration (or purchase) of ones product or corporate project† (Almeder and Humber, 1983, cited in Johnson, 1991: 327). Building professionals have gain integrity and respectability through professional bodies such as the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS), Malaysian Institute of Architects (PAM), The Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM), and Institution of Surveyors Malaysia (ISM), which reflects the professionals of construction industry. These professional standards and ethics are embodied in codes of practice, which define the roles and obligations professionals (Harris et al., 1995) and are the cornerstone of any ethics programme (Calhoun and Wolitzer, 2001). Ethics and Professionalism The Oxford English Dictionary defines ethics as the moral principles that govern or influence a persons conduct. Ethics, as defined by Doran (2004), is the discipline dealing with what is good and bad about moral duty and obligation; a set of accepted moral principles and values about what ought to be; a theory or system of moral principles governing the appropriate conduct for an individual or group; and a code of morality. Doran points out that â€Å"ethics is something that the industry needs to talk more about, agree on, and put into wider practice† (2004: 4). Hinman (1997) distinguishes morals and ethics by regarding morals as first order beliefs, and practices about what is good and bad which guide behaviour; while ethics as second order, reflective consideration of moral beliefs and practices. Martin (2000), defines professionalism as setting aside personal values, feelings, and benefits in order to fulfill the obligations inhered in professional roles. Ethical behaviour, in construction context, is determined by the level of trustworthiness and integrity with which organizations and individuals perform their business (Mason, 2009). In a survey by Vee Skitmore (2003), it was agreed by 93% of the respondents that â€Å"business ethics† should be driven or governed by â€Å"personal ethics†, where there is a need to maintain the balance of both the requirements of the client and the impact on the public. Greenhalgh (1997), describes the core of professionalism as the self-reliant control of a group of experts possessing honorific status. Ethics have a role to play in general business practice despite the term â€Å"business ethics† being called an oxymoron (Ferguson, 1994). The applicability of general concepts of ethics to business is now realized after the recent appearance of greater consensus on this issue. This has been explained on the grounds that business exists not solely to accommodate certain individuals, but also to serve the society and, conforms to collective and social needs (Cohen and Grace, 1998) and environment in general (Fleddermann, 1999). Put differently, the spirit of a ny literal profession cannot be attained without an ethics element (Bowie, 1991). Professional Ethics in Construction Industry Professional ethics as defined by Martin (2000), consists of moral requirements attached to a profession and imposed on its members, together with ethical dilemmas created when there is a conflict of interest or the requirements are too vague to give guidance. Bayles (1988) describes professional ethics as a system of behavioural norms. Such norms ensure that professional does not take advantage over the client due to the knowledge differential the application of customer protection through self-regulation. Construction professionals, for instance, engineers, architects, project managers, surveyors and contractors, have the fundamental right of professional conscience (Martins and Schinzinger, 1996, cited in Fleddermann, 1999, p.87). Another important feature of ethics in the construction industry is â€Å"personal ethics† often interpreted by construction professionals as just treating others with the same point of honesty that they would want to be treated (Badger and Gay, 1996). Yet, it has been suggested that professionals in general tend to believe that their responsibilities to the client far outweigh the public (Johnson, 1991). An Australian study by Vee Skitmore (2003), demonstrates that most organizations subscribed to a professional code of ethics (90%), and many (45%) had an ethical code of conduct in their employing organizations. Reeck (1982) notes that ethical codes provide guidance for professionals in determining proper action. A South African study based on the work done in Australia shows that a new suite of professional Acts promulgated in 2000 in South Africa had boosted the profile of ethics (Vee Skitmore, 2003). However, Henry (1995) cautions that ethical codes do not solve moral dilemmas but do help to raise the levels of awareness and so encourage ethical practice. Professional Misconduct and its Impact to the Construction Industry The renowned cases of corporate malfeasance such as Enron reflect the unethical business practices that resulted in companies rapidly lose their reputations; shareholders revolt, unemployment, besides causing the whole industries to come under suspicion (Doran, 2004). Dorans research has shown that unethical behaviour affects the publics perception of the industry (61%), and more significantly, it affects the level of trust between clients and contractors (74%), and between contractors and design professionals (60%). As a matter of fact, codes of practice alone are insufficient to ensure ethical conduct in the construction industry. Ethical misconducts continue to happen in the construction industry, for instance, collusive tendering that results in apparently competitive bids, price fixing, or market distribution strategies that prohibit the spirit of free competition and defraud clients (Zarkada-Fraser, 2000), bid-cutting (May et al., 2001), bid-shopping, cover pricing, hidden fees and commissions and compensation for unsuccessful tenderers (Ray et al., 1999; Zarkada-Fraser and Skitmore, 2000), together with â€Å"withdrawal† ( Zarkada, 1998: 36) where a tenderer withdraws their bid after consultation with other tenderers. Other frequently reported unethical practices are related to fraud, breach of confidence and negligence. Deceit, trickery, sharp practice, or breach of confidence, by which it is sought to gain some unfair or dishonest advantage, is the description of the unethical practice of fraud (Bolgna et al., 1996: 9). A common breach of confidentiality is whistle blowing, described as the act of an employee of informing the public or higher management of unethical or illegal behaviour by an employer or supervisor (Johnson, 1991: 32). Negligence is the â€Å"failure to exercise that degree of care which, in the circumstances, the law requires for the protection of those interests of other persons which may be injuriously affected by the need of such care†. (Delbridge et al., 2000). The main sources of negligence are design negligence, design defect, production defect or a combination of these factors (Thorpe and Middendorf, 1980: 75). Barriers that Limit Professional and Ethical Behaviour Brien (1998), states that the cause of ethical failure in an organization can often be traced to its organizational culture and also the failure of the leader to encourage ethical practices among the members. In spite of the fact that personal ethics that constitute to perception of beliefs, values, personality and background, any tendency of an individual towards ethical conduct is strongly influenced by the value systems reflected by the employing organization (Mason, 2009). According to one study by Pearl et al. (2007), the extent to which ethical internal control is exercised within an organization will influence the difficulty facing any professional community. When the participants of the construction industry get caught in a compromising situation, the temptation for them to be unethical can be almost irresistible which is particularly true at the contractor level. The pressure on contractors are emphasized by Stansbury (2005), Chairman of Transparency International (UK) that, the majority of contractors engaged in corruption are forced by the way the industry and the political environment operate. Furthermore, there is no consensus on precisely what constitutes unethical behaviour and what should be done to improve it (Mason, 2009). Improving Professional Ethics in the Construction Industry There are contravening opinions as to whether or not the adoption of ethical codes has enriched ethical standards in the construction industry. Indeed, some commentators have even suggested that an ethical code is nothing more than public relations â€Å"window dressing† (Starr, 1983). Mason (2009), in his research describes that a single-wide code can contribute to the development of ethical standards within the construction industry as â€Å"the first line of defense against corruption† (Uff, 2003). The Code was intended to apply to all professionals of construction industry regardless of their qualification or affiliation. The principles are set out as accepted behaviour benchmark and regroup into seven qualities as honesty, fairness, fair reward, reliability, integrity, objectivity and accountability. Even so, Mason indicates that the change for a better ethical standards of conduct in the industry can only be achieved by reducing the chances for construction partic ipants to consider it a need to draw advantage at someone elses expense. He points out that other measures such as longer term relationships and collaborative working in the industry also play an equally substantial role in ethical improvement. Mason (2009), suggests that one way to improve ethical standards is simply by enforcing the law where unethical conduct is also a breach of the criminal law. This can be illustrated by the enforcement activity in the UK by the Office of Fair Trading (OFT 2007). The OFT aim is to ensure a fair competition during tender bid stages, which regards collusion as a contravention of competition, and the OFT has continues to conduct investigation to battle corruption. Dorans research (2004) has implied that the construction industry should get more training on professional ethics, where 97% thought that ethics training should begin at the collegiate level. Despite the trend towards increased training in the construction industry continues to grow, the initiatives to offer training on ethics is seldom heard. Doran suggests that companies should adopt ethical codes before increasing the training on ethics so that training will be more goal-orientated. References: Bowie, N. (1991). Business ethics as an academic discipline, in Freeman, R.E. (Eds). Business Ethics: The State of the Art. Oxford University Press: New York. Brien, A. (1998). Professional ethics and the culture of trust.Journal of Business Studies, 17, pp.391-409. Doran, D. (2004),FMI/CMAA Survey of Construction Industry Ethical Practices, FMI Corporation, Raleigh, NC. Retrieved October 8, 2009 from www.acce-hq.org/documents/ethics_survey.pdf Fellows, R. (2003). Professionalism in Construction: Culture and Ethics. CIB TG23 International Conference, October 2009, Hong Kong. Ferguson, W.C. (1994). Building a solid ethical foundation in business.The Executive Speaker, 9(1), pp.33-39. Fleddermann, C.B. (1999), Engineering Ethics. Prentice-Hall: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Greenhalgh, B. (1997).Practice Management for Land, Construction and Property Professionals. Chapman and Hall: New York. Hinman, L. M. (1997) Ethics: A Pluralistic Approach to Moral Theory, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Johnson, D.G. (1991), Ethical Issues in Engineering. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Martin, M.W., Schinzinger, R. (1996), Ethics in Engineering, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill: New York. Mason, J. (2009). Ethics in the construction industry: the prospects for a single professional code. International Journal of Law in the Built Environment, 10(3), 192-204. Retrieved October 5, 2009, doi: 10.1108/17561450911001252 Office of Fair Trading (2007). OFT makes ‘fast track offer in biggest error UK cartel investigation, Retrieved October 19, 2009, from www.oft.gov.uk/news/press/2007/49-07 Pearl, R., Bowen, P., Makanjee, N., Akintoye, A., Evans, K. (2007). Professional ethics in the South African construction industry a pilot study. Journal of Construction Management and Economics, 25(6), pp.631-648. Reeck, D. (1982). Ethics for Professioans: A Christian Perspective, Augsbury: Minneapolis. Stansbury, N. (2005).Construction Environment is Prone to Corruption, Retrieved October 18, 2009, from www.buildingtalk.com/news/tch/tch193.html Starr, W. (1983). Codes of ethics: towards a rule-utilitarian justification.Journal of Business Ethics, 2, pp.99-106. Uff, J. (2003).Duties at the Legal Fringe: Ethics in Construction Law, Fourth Michael Brown Foundation Lecture. Vee, C. and Skitmore, R.M. (2003) Professional Ethics in the Construction Industry, Engineering Construction and Architectural Management 10(2), 117-127. Retrieved August, 28, 2009, doi: 10.1108/09699980310466596

Hofstede And Trompenaars Framework Of Cultural Dimensions Commerce Essay

Hofstede And Trompenaars Framework Of Cultural Dimensions Commerce Essay Well known experts have dimensioned culture on both societal as well as organisational perspective. Culture seems to be an ideology comprising framework for every human in the group (David B. Dickerson, Alexander Kouzmin, Nada Korac-Kakabadse,2006). Cultural frameworks may be quite broad as witnessed in the instances of national identification such as the Dutch, the African, the American, and the Asian and so on. Such framework develops the personality even though it might not be tangible; its representation is viewed under its image and behaves as adjoining parts of a picture. (Counts, James,1996). Since more than two decades, the findings and studies relating to the need and application of culture has been influenced by the framework of Geert Hofstede. He is a renowned Dutch anthropologist. During the year 1970, Geert hofstede presented various dimensions of culture by evaluating values concerning work of International business management employees. Geerts most master peace of work was recognised when he divided culture into four different dimensions: Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, Individualism versus collectivism, and masculinity versus femininity. In the year 1991,Geert Hofstede demonstrated a fifth dimension of culture. Hofstede explains the long term orientation as featured by continuation of existence, forming relations by the level of a post, and containing a feeling of disgrace. The short term orientation is featured as having a perfect balance and saving self image concerning the beliefs and traditions and a mutual sharing of good regards(Svend,Hollensen,2007) . The motivation of his framework throughout the academic background, and the results occurring through his findings would imply the validity of the application of such cultural frameworks. Although with the implementation of his cultural frameworks, its reliability had not been fully approved. This may be because his cultural framework being more responsive in terms of standardised point of view than its psychological characteristics(Geert, Hofstede,1991). Enormous findings and research reflect about the actual validity of hofstedes cultural framework. These in-dept findings which have concentrated on people are cross cultural dimensions, which depicted some unreliability on its framework. Few have discovered essential overlap on several dimensions of culture and rest have noticed some cultural dimensions to be less valid. On an aggregate, these studies imply the emergence of finding the reliability of hofstedes cultural framework (Carlos M. Rodriguez,2005). Fons Trompenaars is another Dutch expert of cultural framework, had founded seven cultural orientation in his book Riding the waves of culture (1997). These seven dimensions are universalism versus particularism, achievement versus ascription, neutral versus emotional, defuse versus specific, Communitarianism versus individualism, Human-Time relationship and Human-Nature relationship, and Sequential vs. synchronic. Among these seven cultural dimensions, two of them are quite familiar to that of hofstedes cultural dimensions: collectivism versus individualism, and power distance to some extent. Trompenaars communitarianism 1 vs. individualism is almost very similar to that of Geert Hofstedes collectivism vs. individualism. Trompenaars ascription/achievement cultural orientation implies the accordance of status seems to have connection with that of hofstedes cultural dimension: power distance. This states that if one agrees the accordance of status by the nature except the achievement which depicts a higher capability of accepting power distance. These assumptions or dimension even though essential in analysing the culture of various countries, do not give a clear idea about their preferences and impact on peoples behaviour. This is although not completely linked, as Geert Hofstedes power distance index the way status being accorded, but to the approvable power index in the society, which is not examined by Trompenaars. His other cultural dimensions have more focus on resulting consequences of specific values(Geert Hofstede,1993). The neutral/ emotional cultural dimension explains the capacity of the expr ession of the feelings, which implies a behavioural feature other than a value. With respect to the cultural dimensions of hofstede, Fons Trompenaars had not created his framework on mathematical or statistical information, but on self gathered instrument which he believed having an approved relevancy. Hofstedes five cultural Dimensions: Cultural Dimensions Power Distance Masculinity vs. femininity Individualism vs. Collectivism Uncertainty Avoidance Long vs. short term orientation Source: Geert hofstede (1980), figure 1.1 Power distance  : Power distance index is an element that conveys an allowance or expectation of lack of equality between the people who are either more or less efficient in the society. It explains how the strong people of the organisations and institutions agree and consider that the power is not distributed equally. It shows a feeling of inequality (higher versus lower), but meant from bottom, and not from the top. It describes how the extent of inequality in the society is transferred by the leaders as well as the followers. This dimension enlightens that all the members of the society are unequal, but few are not equal even than the others. Under high power distance societies, the decision makers are the people at the top level whereas in case 2 of low power distance societies, the power is widely distributed and links among the members of the society comprising the feature of equality. Low power distance gives an opportunity to the people for playing an essential role in making decisions for the organization. Hofstedes scale of culture shows that there is high power distance in Arab countries (80) when compared with countries like Austria which consists only 11. Germanys position is nearly in the middle with only 35. The reason is the powerful belief for equality and not the distance between the rich and the poor. It means that Germany has a very good opportunity to grow in the future society. The countries, such as United States shows a power distance of 40 on hofstedes cultural scale. Comparing with Germany, there is an uneven distribution of wealth seen in the United States. This distance between the societies and its members goes on increasing every year. Uncertainty avoidance: In a high uncertainty risk, the members of the society abide by the rules, policies and corporate laws, such as the future methods as a source of enhancing and encouraging society. This dimension tells us that there is a mutual approval of regulation and authority by accepting high risks in order to make essential decisions for the organization. The employees or the members of the organization with low uncertainty avoidance have a fearless feeling for the future. Under high uncertainty avoidance, the decision makers do a high planning to form protective barriers for reducing the risks concerning the events in the future. Countries like Singapore and Jamaica shows a very low uncertainty avoidance comparing with countries like Japan, Greece and Guatemala with high uncertainty avoidance. Individualism vs. collectivism: Individualism indicates the extent to which the people prefer to work as individuals rather than working in a group. It signifies the ambitions and ability of individuals as person. Under individualist approach people are not dependent on others for their decisions. They rather go with their own personal opinions and regards. The people under this kind of culture have a desire to satisfy their personal goals over the groups. In a collectivist society, people think as a group rather than individuals. Collectivist culture is quite opposite as compared to the individualist culture. The countries like United States and United Kingdom explains quite higher individualist ratings, whereas countries like Brazil, India, and Lebanon shows low ratings. For instance, people above the age of eighteen are regarded as matured individuals in making personal decisions independently irrespective of the interference by the elders. On the other hand, under collectivism pe ople depend on each other for their decisions. Team work is the essential objective of their culture. Masculinity vs. femininity: Masculinity refers to the extent to which values like self achievements, wealth, prosperity, property, success, competency, have a greater influence over care, relations, trust, honesty, dignity, maintaining the pleasant environment of the society. People have a certain misconception of this dimension relating to the sexes in the society. This culture specifies various different roles for both man and women in terms of bigger as essential. The feminine culture prefers simple or short as wonderful and assumes the nature of life and relations more vital than materialistic items. Countries like Unites States, Korea and Japan showed a high masculinity rate as compared to low rates seen in Denmark and Belgium. For instance, carrying heavy blocks of bricks is suitably done by a man, but the same work would be difficult for the women. 3 Long vs. short term orientation: Geert Hofstede and Bond (1988) discovered the fifth dimension which was finally stated as time orientation. This cultural dimension was revealed by the findings of the students from twenty three different countries all over the globe. This dimension clarifies that the people believe in a futuristic approach than relying on the past or the history. It also implies dealing with moral righteousness irrespective of the truth. The effect of the high rating in this long term cultural dimension is the tenacity, keeping the relations according to the order. On the contrary short term orientation indicates own stability and firmness. Some of the Asian countries like India and China have a high rating on long term orientation list whereas some of the European markets are seen under short term orientation index. The values concerned with long term orientation are reluctant as in the case of short term orientation is about the belief for the traditions and saving self image in the society (Hollensen, 2007). The seven cultural dimensions of Fons Trompenaars: Universalism versus particularism: Universalistic culture states that the people believe in following laws and rules of the society and they dont prefer exceptions, whereas under particularistic culture people like to be with the exceptional or flexible choices rather than following the specified rules and regulations. Communitarianism versus individualism: In a communitarism culture, people prefer to go with the taking care of their group and working under a team. It is the duty of the people to behave in a manner that serves the society. The needs of the people will be naturally fulfilled by such behaviors of the people.The people under individualism kind of culture go for the free activity and their personal choices. Neutral versus emotional: Under a neutral culture people do not believe in exhibiting their emotions. Exhibiting excess of emotions may flourish the ability to interest individuals. The people on the other hand tend to show their feelings and emotions for the emotional culture. Defuse versus specific cultures: In a defuse culture people believe in sharing everything they desired. The different roles played by the individuals in others life is not differentiated irrespective of their professional or personal life. In a specific culture people try to compete or relate with others on the basis of some specific intentions. The interaction between the people under specific culture is for a specific reason or a purpose. Achievement versus ascription: Under achievement culture, people are regarded on the basis of their performance and the successful results of their hard work, whereas in an ascribed culture people are judged on the basis of their background, sex they belong to, and even their age. Sequential vs. synchronic cultures: This culture is based on the aspects of time in terms of short term or long term and organising in it a sequence i.e. step by step or parallel. Under sequential culture people tend to do one thing at a time, whereas under synchronic culture people believe in doing multitasking activities. They do many things at the same given time. Internal vs. External control: This dimension is related to the control of the nature internally by the people. They believe nature as a machine which can be easily controlled for their own beneficial. They also believe that the nature can be controlled 4 by the inner belief of the individuals like grabbing the opportunity at the right time. The other dimension specifies the control of nature externally to the human being. People under this external controlled culture abide by the changes in the nature. (Fons,Trompenaars, 1993). Strengths and weakness of Hofstedes cultural framework Strengths: Since the information derived by this study is quite old enough, it is still based on excessive and relevant samples. There are no other findings done as on so many national cultures as such by hofstedes in a detailed manner. The previous four cultural dimensions enlighten more by comparing more on the national culture. The deep studies of hofstedes framework are quite relevant as per the IBM employees and international managers. Hofstedes framework is regarded as the most popular framework in the field of cultural findings. Even though his framework is comparatively general for analytical purposes, it can be applied to our day to day cross-cultural outcomes. Weakness: Hofstedes framework of cultural issues is outdated. The data information is not complete in statistical terms because each and every country is not taken into concern. Alike other cultural research, hofstedes framework states that the borders of the nation and its cultural limits matches each other. The cultural mix cannot be considered in cross-cultural countries like United Kingdom, United States, and Spain. The cultural dimensions are quite in a brief structure to explain practical ways to face situations in a cross cultural environment. His framework exhibits only theoretical orientation. The application of his cultural dimensions may vary from one culture to another; the collectivism dimension varies in different countries. For example, Indian collectivism is family oriented whereas Japanese is organisational oriented. In India, an employee who prefers his family interest before organisational is regarded as loyal in nature. (Svend,Hollensen,2007) Strengths and weakness of Trompenaarss cultural framework Strengths: Trompenaars had added some essential cultural dimensions including few of hofstedes. Trompenaars described his framework as problem solving, specifically linked with time, connections and surrounding environment. (Trompenaars, 1993). Weakness: Trompenaars cultural dimensions were not created by statistical analysis. Indeed he developed his own collection framework only on the data he assumed to be reasonable. 5 This collection of information is mostly based on theoretical than derived from scientific experiments. The data collected from questionnaires is relevant to few questions through which its importance had been exhibited. The usefulness of the hofstede and Trompenaars cultural framework in terms of segmenting and targeting markets and predicting consumers behaviour in international markets is simplified with the help of figure1.2: 5 Table 1.2 Countries Power Distance Uncertainty Avoidance Individualism Masculinity Time-Orientation Evaluation of market segmentation and targeting Germany Small Medium Medium-high High Short Choosing products with better performance; utilisation of productive and successful achievement criteria, demand for variety, pleasure and equally risk oriented markets. Sweden Small Low High Low Long Comparatively lower resistance with the new products, high demand by the consumers for novelty, variety and pleasure, and highly environment friendly consumer desire for the people of marketing and firms concerning social issues. Source: Exhibit 3.8, International marketing Journal, Michael R. Czinkota, Ilkka A. Ronkainen, pg74, edition8, 2007. 6 Graph 1.3 Source: Cultural differences in decision making in project teams, Ralf Muller, Konrad Spang, Sinan Ozcan, 2009, vol.2, issue 1. The main reason of the graph 1.3 is to acknowledge the differences in the decision making process in a group comprising members from various nations. Its based on the pattern of the decisions made by the people of Germany and Sweden. This graph study had benifited the members of the group and the project managers in knowing the consequences of cultural diversity in the process of decision making. It indirectly helps to reduce the expected friction during cross cultural project work and also helps to overcome the crosscultural barriers. Figure1.4 Hofstede: Germany United States Power Distance 30 35 Uncertainty Avoidance 60 41 Individualism vs. Collectivism 63 88 Masculinity vs. Femininity 61 59 Long term vs. Short term Orientation 28 25 7 In 1998, arguing on the high rating on the individualist culture in the United States on the cultural scale of Geert Hofstede, Charles Campbell, wrote that It ought to be paradoxical, or at least oxymoronic, our being described as a culture of individualists. He had also stated D H Lawrence, whose philosophical belief is that, people are free to believe what they actually wanted to in United States, in circumstance it does not protest the mob (Charles P. Campbell,1998). Figure 1.5 Trompenaars: Germany United States Universalism vs. Particularism Universalism Universalism Individualism vs. Communitarianism Individualism Individualism Neutral versus emotional Closer to emotional Closer to Neutral Defuse versus specific Specific Partial specific Inner-directed vs. Outer-directed Inner directed Inner directed Achieved status vs. Ascribed status Achievement Achievement Time Orientation Future oriented Future oriented Source: http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_united_states.shtml http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_germany.shtml http://changingminds.org/explanations/culture/trompenaars_culture.htm#uni The characteristics of every country can be examined against the average of the world which is developed by Geert Hofstede. When the scores of the two countries stated in the figure 1.4 and 1.5 are compared with each other, than it shows quite close similarities. Neutral versus emotional and Defuse versus specific are the only to dimensions depicting dissimilarities. Such differences may lead to political, economical or business severe issues. Fons Trompenaars analysed and interpreted various nations concerning his seven cultural dimensions. He formulated them relating to their characteristic feature or importance, but he did not preferred them by scoring them. The outcomes of Fons Trompenaars tests alike Geert Hofstede, implied that their cultures showed quite close similarities, but still there were few vital differences. 8 Conclusion As this research study shows, that the evidence that might be valid for individual level of comparison may not be the same if we think at global issue or macro analysis.It can be seen that the universalism versus particularism cultural orientation differentiating groups collectivism and that of societys collectivism. The diffuse/specific dimension implying the series of involvement, show no evidence of relation to Geert hofstedes cultural dimensions. We can also see that the limited differences between Germany and United States corporate culture and even they are bounded to identical national cultures. It is desirable that further examination of this evaluation will definitely increase its utilisation in the organizations. Getting to know about ones culture enlightens the similarities or differentiations of other cultures. There have been many implications of the localization which has also taken into consideration Geert Hofstede and Fons Trompenaars cultural frame works. Fons Trompe naars cultural studies are based on the research which describes the misconceptions and difficulties faced in various cultures across the globe. Trompenaars also believed that his cultural views must be formed in an international pattern of cross cultural environment.

Variations of the Ankle Slasher :: Personal Narrative Urban Legends Essays

Variations of the Ankle Slasher As I was growing up I remember my mom warning me about guys hiding underneath cars and cutting the back of the ankles to steal your car. She told me this so convincingly that I thought it just had to be true. I mean, why would anyone make something up like that. I have since learned that this was meant to scare me, and to help make me more aware of my surroundings. It made such an impression on me that to this day as I walk up to my car I pay attention to what is under it. I even find myself looking in the back seat as I unlock the door. I am not even aware that I do it until I get into my car and lock the doors. Through studying Urban Legends in class, I have become very interested in them. For this field report I decided to take this Urban Legend to see if there was anyone else who heard it, and to see if it was being passed on or if was just my deviant mother. My research consisted of two interviews. I interviewed a few of my friends that go to Indiana University and asked them if they would help me with my research. They agreed to an interview. With the interviews I compared variants of a single Urban Legend. I wanted to see how each individual. s story differed, even though they were the same story. This is what makes an Urban Legend. I asked two people about the Urban Legend, The Ankle Slasher. I asked them if they were familiar with the legend. I also asked whom they had heard it from and when. Then I asked them to tell me the story. After they told me their version of the story, I asked if they had heard another version from anyone else. The first person I interviewed was Brian. He told me how he was familiar with the legend, though he can. t remember whom he heard it from. He also told me the version he has heard. He began by telling me how guys hide under cars in a mall, and then when the owners come out they would cut the ankles, around the Achilles. tendon. Then the guys would steal their packages and the car. He also explained to me when he heard this legend. Variations of the Ankle Slasher :: Personal Narrative Urban Legends Essays Variations of the Ankle Slasher As I was growing up I remember my mom warning me about guys hiding underneath cars and cutting the back of the ankles to steal your car. She told me this so convincingly that I thought it just had to be true. I mean, why would anyone make something up like that. I have since learned that this was meant to scare me, and to help make me more aware of my surroundings. It made such an impression on me that to this day as I walk up to my car I pay attention to what is under it. I even find myself looking in the back seat as I unlock the door. I am not even aware that I do it until I get into my car and lock the doors. Through studying Urban Legends in class, I have become very interested in them. For this field report I decided to take this Urban Legend to see if there was anyone else who heard it, and to see if it was being passed on or if was just my deviant mother. My research consisted of two interviews. I interviewed a few of my friends that go to Indiana University and asked them if they would help me with my research. They agreed to an interview. With the interviews I compared variants of a single Urban Legend. I wanted to see how each individual. s story differed, even though they were the same story. This is what makes an Urban Legend. I asked two people about the Urban Legend, The Ankle Slasher. I asked them if they were familiar with the legend. I also asked whom they had heard it from and when. Then I asked them to tell me the story. After they told me their version of the story, I asked if they had heard another version from anyone else. The first person I interviewed was Brian. He told me how he was familiar with the legend, though he can. t remember whom he heard it from. He also told me the version he has heard. He began by telling me how guys hide under cars in a mall, and then when the owners come out they would cut the ankles, around the Achilles. tendon. Then the guys would steal their packages and the car. He also explained to me when he heard this legend.

Jane Campions The Piano - A Metaphor for European Domination Essay

Jane Campion's The Piano - A Metaphor for European Domination The exact nature of the encounters between Captain James Cook and the Polynesian natives of Hawaii as well as all interactions and exchanges between Europeans and native Polynesian peoples of the Pacific while Cook was exploring the islands of Hawaii and after has been investigated by anthropologists and historians for many years. Captain Cook died at the hand of Polynesian natives while he was at Hawaii in 1779. Marshall Sahlins stated that Cook was seen as the god Lono during the celebration of the Makahiki festival taking place at the time of Cook’s visit. Gananath Obeyesekere, in his noted work, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific, argues that Sahlins is incorrect in his conclusions about Cook and his myth models, which are defined as indigenous people not using rationality in the same way as Europeans. They underestimate the flexibility and pragmatism of indigenous cultures and cosmology. Obeyesekere argues that the Prospero myth and the Kur tz myth are evident in the works of Sahlins and other historians as well. The Prospero myth that is of the European explorer who brings forth peace and a "civilized" culture to the native peoples of the lands he or she explores. The name "Prospero" is taken from a character in Shakespeare’s play, The Tempest. The Kurtz myth is that of the explorer, who witnesses the raw nature and "uncivilized" culture and ideology of the native peoples and becomes himself "savage". The name "Kurtz" originated from Joseph Conrad’s novel Heart of Darkness and is adopted in Francis Ford Coppola’s cinematic masterpiece Apocalypse Now. Obeyesekere’s ideas are prevalent in The Piano, a feature film involving a lov... ...rts Obeyesekere’s arguments by having the savage element awakened, then subdued with force in the supposedly civilized Europeans, as opposed to Sahlin’s denial of European savagery in the explorations of Cook and the denial that Cook was a savage and bloodthirsty male seeking to kill, using "civilization" as an excuse for killing. This idea is seen in the domination of Ada by both Stewart and Baines, and the males’ violence and sexual aggression toward the innocent and mute Ada. The inability to speak on Ada’s part is a metaphor for her domination by the males, a trait of european culture in the ninteenth century. The piano is the means by which she is able to communicate, embodying both the Kurtz persona in the raw, beautiful sound that flows from the piano, and the Prospero persona in the intricate and ordered melody and harmony with that a skilled pianist plays.

Developmental disorders of renal disease

Some of the common developmental kidney disorders include polycystic kidney disease, congenital nephrotic disease, nephroblastoma, renal agenesis, duplication anomalies, fusion anomalies, malrotation, multicystic dysplastic kidney disease, renal dysplasia, renal hypoplasia, etc. Congenital nephrotic disease is an inherited disorder that may present at birth in which the infant has proteins present in the urine (proteinuria) along with swelling of the body (oedema). The condition is rare and is usually found in children born in Finnish families. Children born with the disorder have a protein found in the urine, known as ‘nephrin’.Several substances such as proteins, fats, blood proteins, etc are excreted in the urine. The individuals develops several symptoms including swelling, low birth weight, malnutrion, kidney failure, poor appetite, infections, presence of blood in the urine, poor general health, cloudy appearance of the urine, etc (Charytan, 2006). Nephroblastoma o r ‘Wilm’s tumour’ is a condition characterised by the formation of a malignant tumour in the kidney. It commonly occurs in infants and children. Wilm’s tumour is a very frequent tumour that develops in the abdomen in children.The condition is frequently related to other birth defects such as urinary tract abnormalities, enlargement of one half of the body, missing iris, etc. As the condition is more frequent in identical twins, it is considered to have a genetic link. The tumour seldom spreads to the other parts of the body. One in every 200, 000 children develop this disorder. The child may develop several symptoms including abdominal pain and swelling, presence of blood in the urine, fever, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, malaise, hypertension, constipation, cloudiness of the urine, etc (Nanda, 2006).Polycystic renal disease (Cystic renal development disorder) is a familial condition in which the affect individuals develop cysts in the kidney. The co ndition is an autosomal dominant condition and the symptoms less frequently develop in childhood. One in every 1000 develops the symptoms of polycystic renal disease. In childhood, an autosomal recessive version of polycystic renal disease can also develop. The child may develop severe symptoms along with renal failure with a fatal outcome. Lung function insufficiency is another frequent complication that can result in death.The common symptoms of polycystic renal disease include abdominal pain, abdominal swelling, presence of blood in urine, flank pain, excessive passage of urine, drowsiness, hypertension, joint pain and swelling, nail defects, cysts in other portions of the body such as testis, liver and pancreas, colon defects, swelling of the kidneys, bile duct defects, portal hypertension, fibrosis, brain abnormalities, kidney stones, anaemia, frequent urinary tract infections, renal failure, liver failure, rupture and bleeding of the cysts, etc. The child has a positive family history of polycystic renal disorder.The exact manner in which multiple cysts are formed in the kidney is not understood clearly. However, a genetic cause has been outlined. Once the kidney cysts are formed, they tend to swell, resulting in deterioration of the kidney function. The individual develops several symptoms (Silberberg, 2007). Renal agenesis is a condition in which the kidneys fail to develop. It can occur unilaterally as well as bilaterally. In the bilateral form, several other conditions such as pulmonary hypoplasia, oligohydramnios, facial defects, limb abnormalities, etc, occur resulting in fatal outcomes.In the unilateral form, the individual develops trigone and ureteral orifice defects, absence of the ureter, etc. This form is less severe compared to the bilateral version. The individual can survive provided the kidney function is managed appropriately (Merck, 2005). Duplication anomalies are conditions in which the individual develops extra collecting systems. Th is may affect one kidney or both, and may involve the ureter, calyx, ureteral orifice and the renal pelvis. These conditions have to be treated very carefully depending on the extent to which function is affected (Merck, 2005).Fusion anomalies are conditions in which the kidneys are united to one another. However, the ureters are separate and enter the bladder on either side. Several conditions such as vesicoureteral reflux, congenital renal cystic dysplasia, etc, tend to occur more frequently with fusion anomalies. A condition known as ‘horseshoe kidneys’ is characterised by the fusion of the renal parenchyma bilaterally. It is one of the most common kidney fusion abnormalities. The ureters tend to function normally. Sometimes the point at which the renal pelvis is united to the ureter is abnormal resulting in urinary obstruction.The second most common kidney union anomaly is ‘crossed fused renal ectopia’ in which the kidneys are present on one of the body , and the ureter crosses the midline of the body and empties into the bladder of the either side. Pancake kidney or ‘fused pelvic kidney’ is a condition in which the kidney is single or fused and is emptied into 2 ureters and collecting systems (Merck, 2005). In multicystic dysplastic kidney, the kidneys consist of multiple cysts, cartilage, primitive tubules, and multiple cysts. The individual develops several symptoms such as infection, swelling, hypertension, etc.Renal dysplasia is a condition in which the renal tubules, vasculature, collecting tubules, etc, develop abnormally, resulting in distortion of the normal kidney function. In renal ectopia, the kidneys are not placed in their exact anatomical position resulting in several problems such as obstruction. Renal hypoplasia is a condition in which the ureteral bud gives rise to an underdeveloped and small kidney. However, the size of the nephrons is normal. The individual can develop hypertension (Merck, 2005). Ur eterocele is a condition in which the ureter is enlarged at the point it is inserted into the bladder.At this point, the flow of urine into the bladder is seriously affected resulting in obstruction and hydronephrosis. In neurogenic bladder, due to a defect in the spine at the lumbosacral region, the nerves that supply the bladder are affected resulting in improper drainage of the bladder. The individual is at a risk of developing several problems such vesicureteral reflux, infection, renal hypertension, scarring, renal failure, etc. Hydronephrosis is a condition in which the ureter and the collecting system are dilated (Conley, 2007). References: Charytan, D. M. (2006). â€Å"Congenital nephrotic syndrome.† Retrieved on January 26, 2008, from Medline Plus Web site: http://wwwils.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001576.htm Conley, S. B. (2007). â€Å"Congenital kidney diseases.† Retrieved on January 26, 2008, from Alberta University Web site: http://cnserver0.nkf.med.ualberta.ca/nephkids/congdiseases.htm Merck (2005). â€Å"Renal Anomalies.† Retrieved on January 26, 2008, from Merck Web site: http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec19/ch290/ch290b.html Nanda, R. (2006). â€Å"Wilms tumor.† Retrieved on January 26, 2008, from Medline Plus Web site: http://wwwils.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001575.htm Silberberg, C. (2007). â€Å"Polycystic kidney disease.† Retrieved on January 26, 2008, from   Medline Plus Web site: http://wwwils.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000502.htm

Maria Helena Lima’s “Imaginary Homelands in Jamaica “ Essay

Outline: Section 1: Writing to rescue her life—It seems as though writer Jamaica Kincaid has written a number of novels in an effort to understand her past and her growth and development throughout it. Almost all of the novels Kincaid has written seem to be interconnected in that they all shed light on certain struggles of her past (paragraphs 1-4). Section 2: Function of bildungsroman—The bildungsroman form, in which a novel focuses on a â€Å"person’s development or spiritual education,† is used specifically by Kincaid and other Caribbean writers to unravel the difficulties and disputations of growing up across the margins of different traditions and cultural universes. The acculturation of a self can be portrayed through the form, however in Kincaid’s novels specifically, the bildungsroman is not so much used as to show the growth in Lucy and Annie John’s adolescent life, but rather to show their reactions respectively to more worldly matters such as racism and colonialism (paragraphs 5-7) (freedictionary.com). Section 3: Far from home—Exile for characters like Lucy and Annie John does not serve the purpose of testing life without their parents, but rather opens their eyes to the escalating world. It is in this big bad world that the characters are forced to find their new identity and beliefs. Not only are these characters left with a sense of strangeness to the new world, but they also signal struggles with the place in which they came from. The longer they spend time in the new strange world, the further they find themselves from their first home. These colonial characters face the challenge of identifying themselves and their cultural origins (paragraphs 8-11). Section 4: Effects of reading literature—Literature is claimed to play an important role in a person’s development. A person’s emotions and reactions stem largely from the literature he/she reads. Lucy had resentment toward daffodils because as a young girl, she was required to memorize a long poem about the flower without having ever seen one in real life. Lucy reads several books, which have an effect on her wanting to change her name. Reading of literature ultimately affects the way in which people react and think (paragraphs 12-13). Section 5: Writing as a means of salvage—In an effort to cure Lucy’s desire for home, she becomes a writer. She writes negative letters to her mother in order to assuage or deal with her feelings. As much as Lucy wants to believe that she is not the girl her parents expected her to be, it is the written letters that she sends and receives that ultimately lead her to realize her true feelings (paragraphs 14-15). Section 6: Finding identity in a culturally different world—As Lucy and Annie John, representations for Kincaid herself—lose parts of their past and are exposed to a strangely new present, they use their knowledge in an effort to comprehend the nature of the world and their part in it (paragraphs 16-17). Summary: Professor Maria Lima’s â€Å"Homelands in Jamaica Kincaid’s Narratives of Development,† claims that writers in diaspora establish the bildungsroman form in their writings to explore the character’s need for individual and national identity. Specifically, Jamaica Kincaid uses mostly all of her novels to write about her struggles and developments in a strange world. Bildungsroman is used in these novels by showing characters’ reactions to more worldly matters such as racism, colonialism, and sexism. Exile is used in these novels, not to test life without the characters’ parents, but rather to open the characters’ eyes to the incredibly complicated world that lies ahead. These characters are forced to find a place for themselves in the strange world as well as having to form their own beliefs about societal matters. However, the longer the time these characters spend away from home, the further they find themselves, emotionally, from home and are left with a strange feeling of loneliness in the world. They are then challenged with having to identify themselves and their cultural origins. Lima claims that Kincaid employs the reading of literature and writing as means of salvation. When put into the tough position of being emotionally disconnected from the world, characters, specifically like Lucy, in Lucy: A Novel, read and use their memories from books to identify themselves. In addition, writing helps the characters to cope with their estranged and complicated feelings. Those caught between culturally different worlds use what they know in an effort to comprehend the nature of the world and their part in it. Discussion Questions: 1. How are the struggles Lucy faces similar and/or different than those of Melinda and Charlie in finding their respective identities? 2. What role does age play in all of the novels we have read thus far? How has Lucy’s older age helped/hindered her in finding her identity? 3. What role have reading literature and writing letters played in the novels we have read so far, specifically in The Perks of Being a Wallflower and Lucy: A Novel? Works Cited Lima, Maria Helena. â€Å"Imaginary Homelands in Jamaica Kincaid’s Narratives of Development† Callaloo 25.3 (Summer 2002): 857-867.